Introduction

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The line or course on which something moves, lies, or points is called a direction. Animals have an amazing sense of direction. Cats and dogs do not have to be taught how to find their way home. Birds migrate thousands of miles each year from their winter to their summer homes; some even return to the same spot where they nested the year before. The Pacific salmon swims across the ocean to lay its eggs in the very stream in which it was born.

When people are described as having a good sense of direction, this means that they notice and remember objects that they pass and are conscious of the various turns in a road or the corridors in a building. This helps them if they return by the same route. If they take another route, they will need directions to help them find their way.

The Language of Directions

Fortunately, people have maps and compasses to guide them, and when the sky is clear they have the Sun and stars. Also, devices with GPS (Global Positioning System) receivers can be used. To learn how to use basic navigational aids, people need to know the exact meanings of words used in the language of directions.

Some of these direction words pertain to the body. Such words are "forward," "back," "right," and "left." Others are related to Earth. These are "up," "down," "north," "south," "east," and "west."

Right and Left

Right and left are names for the two sides of the body. When right and left are used as location words, they are usually qualified as right hand and left hand—the two sides of something as it appears to the viewer. Cars, ships, trains, and airplanes also have their own right and left because we think of them as facing in the direction in which they usually move. On ships and airplanes the left side is called the port side; the right side is called starboard. The front of a ship is called the bow; the rear is called the stern.

All rivers flow downstream—from higher to lower ground. We think of a river as "facing" downstream and call the rising ground on either side of it the right bank and the left bank. When you read that a city is on the left bank of a river, think of yourself as facing downstream. The city will be on your left.

Up and Down

If you drop a ball, it falls to the ground or floor. If you drop a stone into the ocean, it sinks to the ocean bottom. We say that the ball and the stone "fall." Actually they are pulled toward the center of Earth by the force called gravity. Down therefore means toward Earth's center. Up means away from Earth's center.

"Up" and "down" are direction words. So are "upstream" and "downstream," "uphill" and "downhill." We also use these words to locate things: upper story, downstairs, top drawer. "Upstage" means toward the rear of the stage because in early theaters, as in some modern ones, the rear was higher than the front.

Cardinal Directions

There are four main, or cardinal, points of the compass—north, south, east, and west. These four directions are called the cardinal directions. They are defined by Earth's motions.

North and South

The round world we live on spins in space. We say that Earth spins, or rotates, around a straight line through its center. We call this imaginary line Earth's axis, and we call the two ends of the axis poles—the North Pole and the South Pole.

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A globe is a small model of Earth. On it you will see lines drawn from the North Pole to the South Pole. Follow any one of these lines and you will be going straight north or straight south. From the North Pole you can move in only one direction—south. From the South Pole you can move only north. Mapmakers invented these lines—called meridians of longitude—and gave them numbers to help locate places on Earth.

Earth, like a ball, has no top or bottom. We think of the North Pole as the top only because all globes and most maps are made that way. We sometimes say "up north" or "down south" when we mean simply north and south.

East and West

Earth's rotation gives us two more directions—east and west. East is simply the direction toward which Earth is turning. West is the direction from which it turns. Earth makes one complete turn, or rotation, every 24 hours.

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East and west are not directions to particular points such as the North and South Poles. An airplane could circle round and round Earth and go always straight west or always straight east.

The east-west lines get smaller and smaller toward the poles. The longest is the line halfway between the poles. It is called the equator because it divides the world into two equal parts. These parts are called hemispheres (half spheres). The Northern Hemisphere is north of the equator. The Southern Hemisphere is south of the equator.

There is no natural dividing line, such as the equator, separating east from west. Mapmakers needed such a line as a starting point for measuring both time and space. Almost all countries adopted as the prime meridian the line passing through Greenwich, England, because this was the site of a famous observatory. This line, like the equator, is numbered zero. Unlike the equator, it is a half circle. It runs only from one pole to the other. (See also International Date Line; latitude and longitude; time.)

Intermediate Directions

North, south, east, and west are the only true directions. The directions on the compass that are halfway between these cardinal points are called northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest. These in-between points are called intermediate directions.

Globes and maps show only north-south and east-west lines. If one tried to draw on a globe a line going straight northeastward, it would curve more and more as it got nearer the North Pole.

Finding Directions by the Sun

The Sun lights only one side of Earth. It is the turning of Earth that causes day and night. Because the planet turns toward the east, the Sun seems to rise in the east. Throughout the day the Sun appears to move westward across the sky because Earth itself is revolving eastward. The Sun disappears, or sets, in the west when the spinning Earth blots it from view.

It might seem that the Sun would be most useful for giving east-west directions. However, in winter (north of the equator) the Sun rises and sets far to the south of true east and west; and in summer, far to the north. The opposite is true south of the equator. On only two days in the year does the Sun rise exactly in the east and set exactly in the west. These days are about March 21 and September 23, the spring and fall equinoxes. This is true anywhere in the world except near the poles. One can check by looking down an east-west street at sunset or at sunrise.

One thing is certain at any season: for those who live north of the Tropic of Cancer (approximately at a latitude of 23.5° north), the Sun will always be in the south at noon. On any sunny day you can find south with a shadow stick or with a watch. Similarly, for those who live south of the Tropic of Capricorn (approximately 23.5° south), the Sun will always be due north at noon.

How to Find South with a Shadow Stick

In the morning, drive a long stick straight into the ground. Where the shadow of this stick ends, drive in a short stick. Tie a loop at the end of a cord and slip it over the shadow stick. Stretch the cord tight and tie another loop around the short stick. Then use the short stick, still in the loop, to scratch a circle around the shadow stick.

The shadow will grow shorter up to noon. Then it will grow longer. As soon as it touches the circle again, mark this point. Draw a straight line connecting this mark with the hole you made in the morning with the short stick. Exactly halfway along this line, draw a straight line to the shadow stick. This line will run north-south. In the Northern Hemisphere, south will be toward the shadow stick.

How to Find South with a Watch

Put your watch down flat on the ground in the sun. Hold a toothpick upright at the edge of the watch so that it casts a shadow across the watch dial. Then turn the watch so that the shadow lies exactly along the hour hand. If you do this at exactly noon in the Northern Hemisphere, the shadow line will point north, with south the direction toward the Sun. Note that your watch must be set for standard (not daylight-saving) time.

In the morning and afternoon, south will lie halfway between the hour hand and 12:00. In the morning use the left-hand side of the watch to locate the halfway line. In the afternoon use the right-hand side of the watch, reading the numbers backward.

Finding Directions by the Stars

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If you stood at the North Pole and looked up, you would see a star directly over your head. You can see this same star from any place in the Northern Hemisphere. When you point to it, you are pointing very nearly true north. The star was named Polaris, after the pole, but it is also called the North Star, or the polestar. Before the compass was invented the North Star was the best guide for travelers on land and sea. It is not a very bright star, but it is easy to find.

Since very early times, people have imagined that certain groups of stars form the outlines of pictures. The groups are called constellations. The best known of all the constellations is the group of seven bright stars that form the Big Dipper. The two stars in the bowl that are farthest away from the handle are called the Pointers. Star charts show you how to use the Pointers to find the North Star. When you have found the North Star, look for the Little Dipper. The North Star is the last star in the handle of this smaller constellation. Once you have found the Little Dipper, look for Cassiopeia.

The North Star never sets, and it is the only star that is always in the same place in the sky. The stars close to it—called circumpolar (around-the-pole) stars—appear to circle around the North Star. Sometimes the Big Dipper seems to be standing on its handle and sometimes hanging by it.

How to Sight a Star

After locating the North Star, you need to "bring it down to Earth." First, drive a long stake into the ground. Then take a shorter stick and get down on the ground with it. Move it around until you can sight across the tops of the two sticks as if you were aiming a gun at the North Star. When the three points—the two sticks and the star—are in an exact line, drive the short stick into the ground. A line joining the two sticks will run north-south, with the tall stick marking north.

If the North Star is behind a cloud, any other bright star will give you a general direction. Sight the star across two sticks in the same way. Then watch for a while to see which way the star is moving. Remember that stars, like the Sun, rise in the east, circle across the sky, and set in the west.

If the star you are watching is low in the sky, it will appear to move either up or down. If it is rising, you are facing east. If it is setting, you are facing west. If you are watching a star high in the sky, it will appear to move sideways instead of up or down. The direction toward which it moves is west. In the Northern Hemisphere, if it moves to your right, you are facing south. If it moves to your left, you are facing north.

Understanding the Compass

Everyone who likes to sail, camp, or hike should carry a small pocket compass. If you use it correctly, you can always find your way back to the place from where you started. Lay a compass down flat and leave it until the swinging needle comes to rest. In what direction does the arrow point? Most people think it points to the North Pole. It does not. Earth has two other poles, called magnetic poles. The north magnetic pole is in northern Canada. The south magnetic pole is on the opposite side of Earth in the Antarctic. The compass needle points to magnetic north.

How to Make a Floating Compass

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If you have a toy horseshoe magnet or a bar magnet, you can make a compass. Try this experiment. In addition to a magnet you will need two bowls (not metal), two sewing needles, and a piece of cork.

Notice that your magnet pulls to itself small iron and steel objects, such as paper clips. This pull is called magnetic force. It is very much stronger at the two ends of the magnet than in the middle. The ends are called poles. The poles look alike and they have equal magnetic force. Your floating compass will show, however, that each pole behaves differently.

Mark one pole of your magnet with a pencil. Rub the point of one sewing needle on this marked pole; rub the eye on the unmarked pole. To prepare the second needle, rub its eye on the marked pole and its point on the unmarked pole. Both needles are now magnetized, like the needle in a compass.

Run each needle through a small piece of cork so it will float. Drop one needle in each bowl. When the needles come to rest, each will lie in the same direction as a compass needle. One needle, however, will lie with its eye end toward magnetic north; the other, with its point end toward magnetic north.

If you put both needles into the same bowl, they will join eye to eye or point to point. The reason for this is that you made the eye of one needle a north-seeking pole and the eye of the other a south-seeking pole. Unlike, or opposite, poles attract each other. This means they pull toward each other. Similar, or like, poles repel each other. That is, they will push each other away.

Errors of the Compass—Deviation and Declination

Hold a steel knife close to the needle of your floating compass and watch the needle swing toward the blade. It no longer points to magnetic north and is quite useless as a direction finder. If you are depending upon a compass to find your way, be sure that there is no iron or steel near it. This compass error, caused by iron or by any other magnetic substance, is called deviation.

The other compass error is called declination, or variation. It is the difference between true north and magnetic north. You need to know how much the variation is for the place where you are and allow for it. Declination maps and calculators are available online.

How to Read a Road Map

A globe is a small, round model of our round Earth, but maps of all or parts of Earth are flat. Therefore only a globe can show distances, directions, and shapes as they really are. For most purposes, however, maps are more useful than globes. They can be larger and show more detail. They can be printed in books and can be carried about easily, folded or rolled. They can also be published electronically.

There are many kinds of maps and each kind tells a different story. For finding directions there are sea charts and aeronautical charts, railroad maps, road maps, and contour maps. Most common of all are the road maps used by automobile drivers.

When you unfold a road map, hold it so that you can read the words on it. North most likely will be at the top of the sheet, but you should check by looking for a direction arrow or a compass rose. If there is none, you can assume that north is at the top of the map.

If north is at the top, the right-hand edge is east, the left-hand edge is west, and south is at the bottom. When you spread a map on a table, turn it so that the map north is toward the north. Then the directions east and west on your map will be east and west on Earth. If you hang the map on a wall, try to hang it so that east is to the east as you face the map.

The mapmaker, like the architect, draws to scale. If he decides to make one inch (2.5 centimeters) represent 20 miles (32 kilometers), this must be true on every part of the map. If one inch represents 20 miles, one can easily figure the distance from point to point "as the crow flies." Since roads do not always follow a straight route, one must total the mileage shown on the map along the highways to calculate actual driving distance.

Maps of a smaller area—of a city or part of a city rather than a state or province, for example—can be drawn to a much larger scale. They can thus show such features as streets, parks, and main buildings. The larger the scale, the more details a mapmaker can show.

Orientation with Map and Compass

There are many large areas around the world where one might wander for days without meeting another person or crossing a road. In such places the fisherman, the hunter, the camper, the hiker, the mountain climber, and others can use a map and compass to help them find their way.

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The best kind of map for this purpose is a topographic sheet in the scale of 1 inch to 2,000 feet (2.5 centimeters to 610 meters). Topographic maps use line symbols, called contours, to show ups and downs. They also show every creek, pond, and woodland, as well as man-made features. Such maps may be obtained from a map store or from certain local and national government offices.

One of the best compasses for hikers is the orienteering compass. It is mounted on a transparent plastic plate. The magnetic needle swings inside a fluid-filled housing made of plastic or some other nonmagnetic material. The housing can be turned easily on the plate. The circular edge of the housing is marked into 360 parts, called degrees. Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere compasses have their needles weighted in opposite manners to compensate for the magnetic pull on their pointers.

The degrees are numbered in clockwise order from zero through 360. North is zero, or 360. East is 90, south is 180, and west is 270. Each degree indicates a possible direction of travel, called a bearing.

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If a starting place and destination are marked on a map, the route direction may be determined by using a compass. The following steps will provide a bearing.

On the plastic plate at the top is an arrow marked Direction of Travel. The compass should be placed on the map so that this arrow (or either long edge of the plate) lies along the chosen route. Then the compass housing is turned until the N–S line that runs through it is aligned with north–south on the map. The degree reading below the Direction of Travel line should then be noted.

The direction arrow that has been printed on the topographic map may show a considerable difference between magnetic north and true north. If, for example, the declination is 5 degrees east, 5 degrees are subtracted. If the declination is to the west, the degrees are added.

When starting out, one's bearing must be transferred from the map to the land. The entire compass, which must be held level, is turned until the magnetic needle points to N. The line indicated by the arrow on the plate can then be followed. (See also maps and globes.)